Silkroad Foundation | Dunhuang Studies

DUNHUANG STUDIES - CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY

CREDIT - The Dunhuang webpages are researched and contributed by Prof. Ning Qiang

Historical Periods

Period	Chinese Dynastic Year	Wester Year
Sixteen States	Jianyuan 2nd- Yonghe 7th	366-439
Northern Wei	Taiyan 5th-Yongxi 3rd	439-534
Western Wei	Datong 1st-Gongdi 3rd	535-556
Northern Zhou	Yuwen Jue 1st-Daxiang 2nd	557-580
Sui	Kaihuang 1st-Yining 2nd	581-618
Tang	Wude 1st-Tianyou 3rd	618-906
Early Tang	Wude 1st-Changan 4th	618-704
High Tang	Shenlong 1st-Jianzhong 1st	705-780
Middle Tang	Jianzhong 2nd-Dazhong 1st	781-847
Late Tang	Dazhong 2nd-Tianyou 3rd	848-906
Five Dynasties	Kaiping 1st-Xiande 6th	907-959
Song	Jianlong 1st-Jinyou 2nd	960-1035
Western Xia	Daqing 1st-Baonyi 2nd	1036-1226
Yuan	Taizu 22nd-Zhizheng 28th	1227-1368

Note: The periodical divisions of the Mogao Caves in this table apparently differ from the traditional dynastic divisions of Chinese history. The local historical periods of Dunhuang sometimes cannot be adapted into the national history. For example, Dunhuang was occupied by the Tibetans between 781-847 while central China was continually controlled by the Tang government. When the Western Xia conquered Dunhuang in 1035, the Song Dynasty still occupied most territories of China. The Mongols replaced the Western Xia as the ruler of Dunhuang in 1226, five decades earlier than the fall of the Southern Song. We cannot simply use the dynastic changes in central China as the standards to phrase the local history of Dunhuang. The historical periods in this table were divided on the basis of local context.

Chronology of the Mogao Caves

Sixteen States (366-439)
Caves: 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 275.
(Total: 7 caves).

Northern Wei (439-534)
Caves: 251, 254, 257, 259, 260, 263, 265, 273, 441.
(Total: 9 caves).

Western Wei (535-556)
Caves: 246, 247, 248, 249, 285, 286, 288, 431, 432, 435, 437, 461.
(Total: 12 caves).

Northern Zhou (557-580)
Caves: 250, 290, 291, 294, 296, 297, 298, 299, 301, 428, 430, 438, 439, 440, 442.
(Total: 15 caves).

Sui (581-618)
Caves: 56, 59, 62, 63, 64, 206, 243, 244, 253, 255, 262, 266, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 289, 292, 293, 295, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 376, 378, 379, 380, 383, 388, 289, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429, 433, 434, 436, 451, 453, 455, 456, 457.
(Total: 95 caves)

Tang (618-906) [including Early, High, Middle, and Late periods]
(Total: 269 caves)

Early Tang (618-704)
Caves: 51, 57, 58, 60, 67, 68, 70, 71, 77, 78, 90, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 220, 242, 283, 287, 321, 322, 328, 329, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 371, 372, 373, 375, 381, 386, 448.
(Total: 46 caves).

High Tang (705-780)
Caves: 23, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 66, 74, 75, 79, 80, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 91, 101, 103, 109, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 148, 162, 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 172, 175, 176, 179, 180, 182, 185, 188, 194, 199, 208, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 223, 225, 264, 300, 319, 320, 323, 345, 347, 353, 374, 384, 387, 444, 445, 446, 450, 458, 460, 482, 483, 484, 490, 492.
(Total: 97 caves)

Middle Tang (781-847)
Caves: 7, 21, 43, 53, 69, 92, 93, 112, 133, 134, 135, 144, 151, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 186, 191, 197, 200, 201, 222, 226, 231, 234, 236, 237, 238, 240, 258, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366, 368, 369, 370, 447, 449, 467, 478, 469, 471, 472, 474, 475, 478, 479.
(Total: 55 caves)

Late Tang (848-906)
Caves: 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 29, 30, 54, 82, 85, 94, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111, 114, 127, 128, 132, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 147, 150, 156, 160, 161, 163, 167, 168, 173, 177, 178, 181, 183, 184, 190, 192, 193, 195, 196, 198, 221, 224, 227, 229, 232, 241, 336, 337, 343, 348, 349, 459, 470, 473.
(Total: 71 caves)

Five Dynasties (907-959)
Caves: 4, 5, 6, 22, 35, 36, 40, 61, 72, 86, 90, 98, 99, 100, 108, 137, 146, 187, 189, 261, 325, 346, 351,362, 385, 476.
(Total: 26 caves)

Song (960-1035)
Caves: 25, 55, 73, 152, 174, 230, 233, 235, 256, 355, 364, 377, 443, 452, 454.
(Total: 15 caves)

Western Xia (1036-1226)
Caves: 37, 239, 245, 326, 327, 330, 350, 352, 354, 356, 367, 382, 415, 464, 491.
(Total: 15 caves)

Yuan (1227-1368)
Caves: 1, 2, 3, 95, 149, 462, 463, 465.
(Total: 8 caves)

Note:
1. Ten caves have been vaguely dated to the Tang Dynasty (618-906) without any indications about their specific periods. These caves include Caves 65, 76, 81, 97, 110, 131, 169, 252, 344, and 466.
2. Caves 11 and 228 were built during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912). Because the continuous construction of the caves stopped after the Yuan (1227-1368), these two Qing caves are commonly considered "accidental" and excluded from the study of the Dunhuang caves.
3. Nine caves, including a overlapped number, have not been dated because of their extremely complicated conditions. These caves include Caves 324, 477, 480, 481, 485, 486 [same as 485], 487, 488, 489.
4. The total number of the Mogao caves is 492.

* This chart is adapted from Ning Qiang's book, Dunhuang Fojiao yishu--Meishushi de fengxi (Dunhuang Buddhist Art: An Art Historical Approach), pp.70-72.

Major Historical Events

Time Event
2200 BC. The "three Miao" tribes were forced to move from central China to the northwest and they settled at the Sanwei Mountain in Dunhuang. They were probably the earliest residents of Dunhuang.
1600 BC. The cultural relics belong to the "Huoshaogou Type" were discovered at the ruined Yangguan Pass in 1987. This type of culture has been dated to 1600 BC.
4th-3rd centuries BC. The Yuezhi tribes became the dominant power at Dunhuang and forced other tribes to move to the west.
Early 2nd century BC. The Huns from the north defeated the Yuezhi tribes and became the new master of the Dunhuang region.
139-126 BC. The Han envoy Zhang Qian visited the "Western Regions" including Dunhuang and brought back detailed information on these regions to the Han court.
133 BC. Emperor Wu of the Western Han started the war against the Huns and eventually drove the Huns back to the northern desert.
111 BC. Dunhuang was formally included into the Han empire and became a county, the Dunhuang County, under the rule of the Han government. The Han soldiers, farmers, and criminals were sent to this new territory. They brought with advanced technology and their native cultures to Dunhuang and turned Dunhuang into a metropolis of international trade on the Silkroad.
9 AD. Dunhuang was re-named Dunde by Wang Mang who ruled China during the transition from the Western Han to the Eastern Han.
79 AD. Some Dunhuang soldiers joined the troops to attack the Cheshi Kingdom in the Western Regions and drove the Huns out of the kingdom. Three months later, the troops returned to Dunhuang.
227-253 AD. Cang Ci was the governor of Dunhuang. He protected the merchants from the West.
249-253 AD. Hungpu Long was the governor of Dunhuang. He promoted new farming technology at Dunhuang.
284 AD. Monk Zhu Fahu organized a translation team at Dunhuang. With the assistance of Monk Facheng and others, he translated many Buddhist sutras into Chinese.
366 AD. Monk Yuezun built the first cave at the Mogao site. Some time later, Monk Faliang built another cave at this site.
384 AD. Emperor Fu Jian of the Former Qin had 10,000 families moved from the Jiang-Han area to Dunhuang. Additional 7000 families moved from Zhongzhou in central China to Dunhuang in the same year.
400 AD. Monk Faxian, on his way to India, stayed at Dunhuang for one month. He was patronized by Dunhuang governor Li Song.
413 AD. Indian monk Tan Wucheng (Dharma-raksa) arrived Dunhuang.
421 AD. Dunhuang was conquered by the Northern Liang ruler Zhuju Mengsun. Dunhuang became a part of the Northern Liang Kingdom.
422 AD. Kasmira Monk Tanmi Duoluo (Dharma-mitra) came to Dunhuang. He established a Buddhist temple and planted one thousand trees in the large garden.
435 AD. A group of Chinese monks went to the Great Temple of Yudian (Khotan) and recorded the lectures in the temple. They combined their records into a single volume at Gaochang Kingdom (modern Turfan) near Dunhuang. Monk Huilang named this volume Xianyu Jing (Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish), which was very popular at Dunhuang during the 4th to 6th centuries.
439 AD. The Northern Wei forces destroyed the Northern Liang and became the new ruler of Dunhuang.
445 AD. Wan Dugui, a Northern Wei general, led his troops to Dunhuang and continued their march into the Western Regions. The Silkroad was re-opened.
472 AD. Dunhuang was attacked by the Rouran tribes. Local military chief Wei Duohou successfully defended Dunhuang.
518 AD. Monk Huisheng and Song Yun, a native of Dunhuang, went to the Western Regions, looking for Buddhist sutras.
529 AD. Guazhou (Dunhuang) governor Yuan Rong was promoted as the King of Dongyang. He took the position as the governor of Guazhou before the first year of the Xiaochang era (525 AD). He is recorded to have build a cave at the Mogao site.
539 AD. The Wei Dynasty was divided into two parts, the Western Wei and the Eastern Wei. Dunhuang was under the rule of the Western Wei.
571 AD. Governor Yu Yi of Guazhou (Dunhuang) built a cave at the Mogao site.
579 AD. The Zhai family emigrated to Dunhuang and built a cave at the Mogao site. This family had become an local elite clan since then.
580 AD. Zhang Si, a local official, built a cave at the Mogao site.
581 AD. Yang Jian established the Sui Dynasty. Dunhuang became a part of the Sui Empire.
584 AD. A middle-sized cave (Cave 302) was built at the Mogao site. An inscription on the northern wall of the central pillar of the cave records: "the 21st day of the 6th month of the 4th year of the Kaihuang era."
585 AD. Cave 305 was completed in the first month of the 5th year of the Kaihuang era (585 AD).
589 AD. The Sui army destroyed the Chen Dynasty in the south and unified China. Monk Shanxi built a lecture hall at Dunhuang.
601 AD. The Sui emperor issued an edict requiring every county to construct a Buddhist pagoda on the 15th day of the 10th month of the year. With the emperor's request, Monk Zhiyan brought the Buddha's ash (srina) from the Sui capital to the Chongjiao Temple (Mogao site) at Dunhuang.
607 AD. Guazhou (Dunhuang) was re-named Dunhuang County. Fei Ju from the Sui court came to Dunhuang, trying to convince the neighboring kingdoms to pay respects to the Sui emperor.
609 AD. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty visited the Hexi region including Zhangye and Wuwei near Dunhuang. The kings of the small kingdoms in the Western Regions came to show their respects to the Sui emperor and enjoyed doing business with local Chinese.
613 AD. Cave 282 was finished on the 5th day of the 7th month of the year.
618 AD. The Sui Dynasty was replaced by the Tang Dynasty. Prince Li Shimin, the future Emperor Taizong, was entitled the "Duke of Dunhuang" in the previous year.
620 AD. The military chief of Dunhuang, Heba Xinwei, rebelled.
622 AD. Heba Xinwei was killed by Wang Gan, a native of Dunhuang. Dunhuang was returned to the Tang government.
623 AD. Zhang Hu and Li Tong, two Dunhuang natives, rebelled and declared the independence of Dunhuang. They killed the governor from the Tang court and selected Dou Fuming as the local ruler. The Tang army fought back and Dou Fuming surrendered. Dunhuang was under the rule of the Tang court again.
629 AD. Monk Xuanzhuang passed Dunhuang on his way to India. He was patronized by local officials.
639 AD. Ju Wentai, king of the Gaochang Kingdom near Dunhuang, cut off the way from the Western Regions to the Tang court. Hou Junji led the Tang troop attack Gaochang and destroyed the kingdom in the next year. Gaochang became a Tang territory.
642 AD. The Zhai family built their "family cave" (Cave 220) at the Mogao site.
644 AD. Monk Xuanzhuang brought Buddhist sutras and images back to China. Before he arrived Dunhuang, Emperor Taizong had ordered the local officials and commoners to welcome him in the desert.
648 AD. Shu Haizheng, military chief of Dunhuang, led local troops to join the attack of Kucha, a kingdom in central Asia. The Tang army destroyed Kucha and terrified the nearby small kingdoms.
669 AD. The Tang army conquered Korea. About 28,200 Korean families were forced to emigrate to various counties in China, probably including Dunhuang.
674 AD. The Khotanese king and Parthian (modern Iran) king passed Dunhuang on their way to visit the Tang court in Changan (modern Xi'an).
683 AD. The monks of the Chongjiao Temple at Shazhou (Dunhuang) performed a Buddhist ritual for the sake of the Tang emperor. Emperor Gaozong died in the 12th month. His son Li Xian inherited the throne but the Empress Dowager Wu Zetian actually took over the power.
690 AD. Monk Faming compiled a four-volumed Buddhist sutra, entitled Dayun Jing (The Sutra of Grand Cloud), and presented it to the Wu Zetian. Fa Ming and his followers stated that Wu was Buddha Maitreya descending from heaven and should be the ruler of China. In the 9th month of the year, Wu Zetian replaced the Tang Dynasty with her own Zhou Dynasty.
693 AD. Monk Puti Liuzhi (Bodhiruci, originally Dharmaruci) from southern India presented the Sutra of Treasury Rain, a Buddhist scripture describes a paradise ruled by a female ruler, to the Zhou court.
695 AD. Monk Lingyin and a lay Buddhist Yin Zhu sponsored the construction of the Northern Great Buddha, the largest Buddha statue at the Mogao site. This giant Maitreya Buddha was shaped in a woman's bodily form.
699 AD. Zhang Siyi patronized the northern wall painting of Cave 335 which represents the Vimalakirti-nirdesa Sutra.
716 AD. Zhao Zhiben took the position as the governor of Dunhuang. He encouraged the Zhang family to built a temple of Zhang Zhi, the creator of the "cursive style" in Chinese calligraphy history.
721 AD. Monk Chuyan and a Dunhuang native Ma Sizhong sponsored the Southern Great Buddha, the second largest Buddha statue at the Mogao site.
766 AD. The Tibetans conquered Ganzhou and Shuzhou near Dunhuang.
776 AD. The Li family built a large cave (Cave 148) at the Mogao site.
781 AD. Dunhuang was conquered by the Tibetans after 11 year's bloody resistance.
824 AD. Tibetan envoys came to the Tang court, asking for a picture of the holy Mountain Wutai.
832 AD. Chinese population of Shazhou (Dunhuang) was divided into two "military tribes" in accordance of the Tibetan system.
834 AD. Tibetan official Shangqi Luxiner sponsored a construction project in the Shengguang Temple at Shazhou (Dunhuang). Hongbian, a Chinese monk with Tibetan official title, patronized the construction of Cave 365 at the Mogao site.
839 AD. Yin Jiazheng sponsored the construction of Cave 231 at the Mogao site.
848 AD. Zhang Yichao led the people of Dunhuang fought against the Tibetan authority and recovered Dunhuang and nearby regions from the Tibetan rule. Dunhuang was again a Tang territory.
851 AD. A special military unit of the Tang army, Guiyijun, was formally established. Zhang Yichao was appointed the chief of this unit.
862 AD. Hongbian, the top-leader of the Buddhist communities in the Hexi region, died and his position was occupied by Zhai Farong who started to build a large cave (Cave 85) for his own family. This Zhai family cave was completed in five years.
866 AD. Zhang Yichao went to the Eastern Capital (Loyang) of the Tang Dynasty and left the rulership of Dunhuang to his nephew Zhang Huaisheng.
872 AD. Zhang Yichao died in the capital. Zhang Huaisheng continued to be the local ruler.
887 AD. Zhang Huaisheng sent a group of local officials to the capital, asking for imperial recognition for his position at Dunhuang.
888 AD. Li Hongpu, the imperial envoy, brought the royal recognition of Zhang Huaisheng's position to Dunhuang. Huaisheng built a large cave to celebrate his promotion.
890 AD. Zhang Huaisheng and his wife and children were murdered. Zhang Huaiding became the local ruler.
892 AD. Zhang Huaiding died. Suo Xun, a son-in-law of the Zhang family, became the local leader.
894 AD. Led by Li Mingzhen's wife, the sons of the Li family killed Suo Xun and returned the local rulership to the Zhang family. Zhang Chengfeng became the ruler of Dunhuang. The Li family renovated its "family cave" (Cave 148).
907 AD. End of the Tang Dynasty.
910 AD. Zhang Chengfeng declared the independence of Dunhuang and established his Jinshan Guo or "Kingdom of Golden Mountain." He self-entitled "The Son of Heaven in White Robe."
911 AD. The Ughur troops from Ganzhou attacked Dunhuang. Zhang Chengfeng was forced to sign a treaty which declared that the relationship between the Dunhuang government and the Ganzhou Ughur Kingdom was "son and father."
920 AD. Zhang Chengfeng died. The local rulership was gradually transferred to the Cao family.
924 AD. Cao Yijin sent "gifts" to the Late Tang court and received the imperial recognition. He became the new master of Dunhuang.
925 AD. Zhai Fenda, the 9th generation of the Zhai family and a civil official of the local government, renovated his family cave (Cave 220). Envoys from the Khotan Kingdom visited Dunhuang performed Buddhist rituals at the Mogao site.
933 AD. The prime minister of the Khotan Kingdom visited Dunhuang and patronized the making of Buddhist images at the Mogao site.
935 AD. Cao Yinjin died. His son Cao Yuande became the local ruler.
936 AD. Cao Yijin's Ughur wife sponsored the construction of a large cave (Cave 100) in which her own portrait was depicted.
939 AD. Cao Yuande died. His younger brother Cao Yuansheng stepped in his position as the local ruler.
944 AD. Cao Yuansheng died. His younger brother Cao Yuanzhong became the local ruler. Monk Yuanrong copied the literary transformation of a Buddhist scripture to praise the new ruler of Dunhuang.
950 AD. Cao Yuanzhong patronized the construction of a large cave (Cave 61) in which a giant statue of Manjusri was made. The western wall of the cave depicts the landscape of Mountain Wutai and the miracles took place on that mountain.
956 AD. Dunhuang official Suo Ziquan visited the court of the Khotan Kingdom and met the king.
958 AD. Fan Fuzhu, a native of Dunhuang visited the Khotan Kingdom and saw the king.
960 AD. The Song Dynasty was established. A Khotanese princess built a garden with terraces and flower-trees at Dunhuang.
962 AD. The Song court recognized the authority of Cao Yuanzhong at Dunhuang.
966 AD. Cao Yuanzhong and his wife sponsored the renovation of the covering building of the Northern Great Buddha.
974 AD. Cao Yuanzhong died. His son Cao Yangong stepped in his position.
976 AD. Cao Yangong died. His younger brother Cao Yanlu became the local ruler.
1002 AD. Cao Yanlu was killed by his nephew Cao Zongshou who became the local ruler. Cao Zongshou self-entitled the "King of Dunhuang" and Song court recognized his authority at Dunhuang in the same year.
1006 AD. Cao Zongshou sent tribute to the Liao Kingdom.
1014 AD. Cao Zongshou died. His son Cao Xianshun stepped in his position. Cao Xianshun sent tribute to the Song court and won the imperial recognition. He also sent envoy to the Liao court in the same year.
1036 AD. Shazhou (Dunhuang) was conquered by the Western Xia.
1097 AD. The Khotanese army attacked Dunhuang.
1110 AD. The king of the Western Xia ordered to send grains to relieve the famine at Dunhuang.
1227 AD. The Mongols conquered Dunhuang and used it as a military base.
1277 AD. The county administration was re-established at Dunhuang.
1283 AD. Chinese people were allowed to take positions in the local government.
1303 AD. About 10,000 Mongolian soldiers were based at Dunhuang.
1357 AD. Shi Xiaoyu, a painter from Ganzhou, inscribed on the wall of Cave 444. He created the Chinese style tantric paintings in Cave 3.
1372 AD. General Fengsheng of the Ming Dynasty conquered Dunhuang. After the construction of the Jiayu Pass, Dunhuang was administrated local chiefs. The Moslems from Turfan attacked Dunhuang frequently.
1524 AD. The Ming government closed the Jiayu Pass. Dunhuang was left over, and most local residents were moved other counties inside the pass.
1644 AD. The Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty.
1725 AD. Emperor Yongzheng re-established the local administration and sent 2405 families to Dunhuang. New buildings and streets were constructed.
1760 AD. Dunhuang was re-named a county by the Qing government.
1900 AD. Wang Yuanlu, a Daoist monk residing at the Mogao site, discovered the "library cave." Dunhuang has become gradually a well-known site of Chinese culture and art since then.

Time	Event
2200 BC.	The "three Miao" tribes were forced to move from central China to the northwest and they settled at the Sanwei Mountain in Dunhuang. They were probably the earliest residents of Dunhuang.
1600 BC.	The cultural relics belong to the "Huoshaogou Type" were discovered at the ruined Yangguan Pass in 1987. This type of culture has been dated to 1600 BC.
4th-3rd centuries BC.	The Yuezhi tribes became the dominant power at Dunhuang and forced other tribes to move to the west.
Early 2nd century BC.	The Huns from the north defeated the Yuezhi tribes and became the new master of the Dunhuang region.
139-126 BC.	The Han envoy Zhang Qian visited the "Western Regions" including Dunhuang and brought back detailed information on these regions to the Han court.
133 BC.	Emperor Wu of the Western Han started the war against the Huns and eventually drove the Huns back to the northern desert.
111 BC.	Dunhuang was formally included into the Han empire and became a county, the Dunhuang County, under the rule of the Han government. The Han soldiers, farmers, and criminals were sent to this new territory. They brought with advanced technology and their native cultures to Dunhuang and turned Dunhuang into a metropolis of international trade on the Silkroad.
9 AD.	Dunhuang was re-named Dunde by Wang Mang who ruled China during the transition from the Western Han to the Eastern Han.
79 AD.	Some Dunhuang soldiers joined the troops to attack the Cheshi Kingdom in the Western Regions and drove the Huns out of the kingdom. Three months later, the troops returned to Dunhuang.
227-253 AD.	Cang Ci was the governor of Dunhuang. He protected the merchants from the West.
249-253 AD.	Hungpu Long was the governor of Dunhuang. He promoted new farming technology at Dunhuang.
284 AD.	Monk Zhu Fahu organized a translation team at Dunhuang. With the assistance of Monk Facheng and others, he translated many Buddhist sutras into Chinese.
366 AD.	Monk Yuezun built the first cave at the Mogao site. Some time later, Monk Faliang built another cave at this site.
384 AD.	Emperor Fu Jian of the Former Qin had 10,000 families moved from the Jiang-Han area to Dunhuang. Additional 7000 families moved from Zhongzhou in central China to Dunhuang in the same year.
400 AD.	Monk Faxian, on his way to India, stayed at Dunhuang for one month. He was patronized by Dunhuang governor Li Song.
413 AD.	Indian monk Tan Wucheng (Dharma-raksa) arrived Dunhuang.
421 AD.	Dunhuang was conquered by the Northern Liang ruler Zhuju Mengsun. Dunhuang became a part of the Northern Liang Kingdom.
422 AD.	Kasmira Monk Tanmi Duoluo (Dharma-mitra) came to Dunhuang. He established a Buddhist temple and planted one thousand trees in the large garden.
435 AD.	A group of Chinese monks went to the Great Temple of Yudian (Khotan) and recorded the lectures in the temple. They combined their records into a single volume at Gaochang Kingdom (modern Turfan) near Dunhuang. Monk Huilang named this volume Xianyu Jing (Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish), which was very popular at Dunhuang during the 4th to 6th centuries.
439 AD.	The Northern Wei forces destroyed the Northern Liang and became the new ruler of Dunhuang.
445 AD.	Wan Dugui, a Northern Wei general, led his troops to Dunhuang and continued their march into the Western Regions. The Silkroad was re-opened.
472 AD.	Dunhuang was attacked by the Rouran tribes. Local military chief Wei Duohou successfully defended Dunhuang.
518 AD.	Monk Huisheng and Song Yun, a native of Dunhuang, went to the Western Regions, looking for Buddhist sutras.
529 AD.	Guazhou (Dunhuang) governor Yuan Rong was promoted as the King of Dongyang. He took the position as the governor of Guazhou before the first year of the Xiaochang era (525 AD). He is recorded to have build a cave at the Mogao site.
539 AD.	The Wei Dynasty was divided into two parts, the Western Wei and the Eastern Wei. Dunhuang was under the rule of the Western Wei.
571 AD.	Governor Yu Yi of Guazhou (Dunhuang) built a cave at the Mogao site.
579 AD.	The Zhai family emigrated to Dunhuang and built a cave at the Mogao site. This family had become an local elite clan since then.
580 AD.	Zhang Si, a local official, built a cave at the Mogao site.
581 AD.	Yang Jian established the Sui Dynasty. Dunhuang became a part of the Sui Empire.
584 AD.	A middle-sized cave (Cave 302) was built at the Mogao site. An inscription on the northern wall of the central pillar of the cave records: "the 21st day of the 6th month of the 4th year of the Kaihuang era."
585 AD.	Cave 305 was completed in the first month of the 5th year of the Kaihuang era (585 AD).
589 AD.	The Sui army destroyed the Chen Dynasty in the south and unified China. Monk Shanxi built a lecture hall at Dunhuang.
601 AD.	The Sui emperor issued an edict requiring every county to construct a Buddhist pagoda on the 15th day of the 10th month of the year. With the emperor's request, Monk Zhiyan brought the Buddha's ash (srina) from the Sui capital to the Chongjiao Temple (Mogao site) at Dunhuang.
607 AD.	Guazhou (Dunhuang) was re-named Dunhuang County. Fei Ju from the Sui court came to Dunhuang, trying to convince the neighboring kingdoms to pay respects to the Sui emperor.
609 AD.	Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty visited the Hexi region including Zhangye and Wuwei near Dunhuang. The kings of the small kingdoms in the Western Regions came to show their respects to the Sui emperor and enjoyed doing business with local Chinese.
613 AD.	Cave 282 was finished on the 5th day of the 7th month of the year.
618 AD.	The Sui Dynasty was replaced by the Tang Dynasty. Prince Li Shimin, the future Emperor Taizong, was entitled the "Duke of Dunhuang" in the previous year.
620 AD.	The military chief of Dunhuang, Heba Xinwei, rebelled.
622 AD.	Heba Xinwei was killed by Wang Gan, a native of Dunhuang. Dunhuang was returned to the Tang government.
623 AD.	Zhang Hu and Li Tong, two Dunhuang natives, rebelled and declared the independence of Dunhuang. They killed the governor from the Tang court and selected Dou Fuming as the local ruler. The Tang army fought back and Dou Fuming surrendered. Dunhuang was under the rule of the Tang court again.
629 AD.	Monk Xuanzhuang passed Dunhuang on his way to India. He was patronized by local officials.
639 AD.	Ju Wentai, king of the Gaochang Kingdom near Dunhuang, cut off the way from the Western Regions to the Tang court. Hou Junji led the Tang troop attack Gaochang and destroyed the kingdom in the next year. Gaochang became a Tang territory.
642 AD.	The Zhai family built their "family cave" (Cave 220) at the Mogao site.
644 AD.	Monk Xuanzhuang brought Buddhist sutras and images back to China. Before he arrived Dunhuang, Emperor Taizong had ordered the local officials and commoners to welcome him in the desert.
648 AD.	Shu Haizheng, military chief of Dunhuang, led local troops to join the attack of Kucha, a kingdom in central Asia. The Tang army destroyed Kucha and terrified the nearby small kingdoms.
669 AD.	The Tang army conquered Korea. About 28,200 Korean families were forced to emigrate to various counties in China, probably including Dunhuang.
674 AD.	The Khotanese king and Parthian (modern Iran) king passed Dunhuang on their way to visit the Tang court in Changan (modern Xi'an).
683 AD.	The monks of the Chongjiao Temple at Shazhou (Dunhuang) performed a Buddhist ritual for the sake of the Tang emperor. Emperor Gaozong died in the 12th month. His son Li Xian inherited the throne but the Empress Dowager Wu Zetian actually took over the power.
690 AD.	Monk Faming compiled a four-volumed Buddhist sutra, entitled Dayun Jing (The Sutra of Grand Cloud), and presented it to the Wu Zetian. Fa Ming and his followers stated that Wu was Buddha Maitreya descending from heaven and should be the ruler of China. In the 9th month of the year, Wu Zetian replaced the Tang Dynasty with her own Zhou Dynasty.
693 AD.	Monk Puti Liuzhi (Bodhiruci, originally Dharmaruci) from southern India presented the Sutra of Treasury Rain, a Buddhist scripture describes a paradise ruled by a female ruler, to the Zhou court.
695 AD.	Monk Lingyin and a lay Buddhist Yin Zhu sponsored the construction of the Northern Great Buddha, the largest Buddha statue at the Mogao site. This giant Maitreya Buddha was shaped in a woman's bodily form.
699 AD.	Zhang Siyi patronized the northern wall painting of Cave 335 which represents the Vimalakirti-nirdesa Sutra.
716 AD.	Zhao Zhiben took the position as the governor of Dunhuang. He encouraged the Zhang family to built a temple of Zhang Zhi, the creator of the "cursive style" in Chinese calligraphy history.
721 AD.	Monk Chuyan and a Dunhuang native Ma Sizhong sponsored the Southern Great Buddha, the second largest Buddha statue at the Mogao site.
766 AD.	The Tibetans conquered Ganzhou and Shuzhou near Dunhuang.
776 AD.	The Li family built a large cave (Cave 148) at the Mogao site.
781 AD.	Dunhuang was conquered by the Tibetans after 11 year's bloody resistance.
824 AD.	Tibetan envoys came to the Tang court, asking for a picture of the holy Mountain Wutai.
832 AD.	Chinese population of Shazhou (Dunhuang) was divided into two "military tribes" in accordance of the Tibetan system.
834 AD.	Tibetan official Shangqi Luxiner sponsored a construction project in the Shengguang Temple at Shazhou (Dunhuang). Hongbian, a Chinese monk with Tibetan official title, patronized the construction of Cave 365 at the Mogao site.
839 AD.	Yin Jiazheng sponsored the construction of Cave 231 at the Mogao site.
848 AD.	Zhang Yichao led the people of Dunhuang fought against the Tibetan authority and recovered Dunhuang and nearby regions from the Tibetan rule. Dunhuang was again a Tang territory.
851 AD.	A special military unit of the Tang army, Guiyijun, was formally established. Zhang Yichao was appointed the chief of this unit.
862 AD.	Hongbian, the top-leader of the Buddhist communities in the Hexi region, died and his position was occupied by Zhai Farong who started to build a large cave (Cave 85) for his own family. This Zhai family cave was completed in five years.
866 AD.	Zhang Yichao went to the Eastern Capital (Loyang) of the Tang Dynasty and left the rulership of Dunhuang to his nephew Zhang Huaisheng.
872 AD.	Zhang Yichao died in the capital. Zhang Huaisheng continued to be the local ruler.
887 AD.	Zhang Huaisheng sent a group of local officials to the capital, asking for imperial recognition for his position at Dunhuang.
888 AD.	Li Hongpu, the imperial envoy, brought the royal recognition of Zhang Huaisheng's position to Dunhuang. Huaisheng built a large cave to celebrate his promotion.
890 AD.	Zhang Huaisheng and his wife and children were murdered. Zhang Huaiding became the local ruler.
892 AD.	Zhang Huaiding died. Suo Xun, a son-in-law of the Zhang family, became the local leader.
894 AD.	Led by Li Mingzhen's wife, the sons of the Li family killed Suo Xun and returned the local rulership to the Zhang family. Zhang Chengfeng became the ruler of Dunhuang. The Li family renovated its "family cave" (Cave 148).
907 AD.	End of the Tang Dynasty.
910 AD.	Zhang Chengfeng declared the independence of Dunhuang and established his Jinshan Guo or "Kingdom of Golden Mountain." He self-entitled "The Son of Heaven in White Robe."
911 AD.	The Ughur troops from Ganzhou attacked Dunhuang. Zhang Chengfeng was forced to sign a treaty which declared that the relationship between the Dunhuang government and the Ganzhou Ughur Kingdom was "son and father."
920 AD.	Zhang Chengfeng died. The local rulership was gradually transferred to the Cao family.
924 AD.	Cao Yijin sent "gifts" to the Late Tang court and received the imperial recognition. He became the new master of Dunhuang.
925 AD.	Zhai Fenda, the 9th generation of the Zhai family and a civil official of the local government, renovated his family cave (Cave 220). Envoys from the Khotan Kingdom visited Dunhuang performed Buddhist rituals at the Mogao site.
933 AD.	The prime minister of the Khotan Kingdom visited Dunhuang and patronized the making of Buddhist images at the Mogao site.
935 AD.	Cao Yinjin died. His son Cao Yuande became the local ruler.
936 AD.	Cao Yijin's Ughur wife sponsored the construction of a large cave (Cave 100) in which her own portrait was depicted.
939 AD.	Cao Yuande died. His younger brother Cao Yuansheng stepped in his position as the local ruler.
944 AD.	Cao Yuansheng died. His younger brother Cao Yuanzhong became the local ruler. Monk Yuanrong copied the literary transformation of a Buddhist scripture to praise the new ruler of Dunhuang.
950 AD.	Cao Yuanzhong patronized the construction of a large cave (Cave 61) in which a giant statue of Manjusri was made. The western wall of the cave depicts the landscape of Mountain Wutai and the miracles took place on that mountain.
956 AD.	Dunhuang official Suo Ziquan visited the court of the Khotan Kingdom and met the king.
958 AD.	Fan Fuzhu, a native of Dunhuang visited the Khotan Kingdom and saw the king.
960 AD.	The Song Dynasty was established. A Khotanese princess built a garden with terraces and flower-trees at Dunhuang.
962 AD.	The Song court recognized the authority of Cao Yuanzhong at Dunhuang.
966 AD.	Cao Yuanzhong and his wife sponsored the renovation of the covering building of the Northern Great Buddha.
974 AD.	Cao Yuanzhong died. His son Cao Yangong stepped in his position.
976 AD.	Cao Yangong died. His younger brother Cao Yanlu became the local ruler.
1002 AD.	Cao Yanlu was killed by his nephew Cao Zongshou who became the local ruler. Cao Zongshou self-entitled the "King of Dunhuang" and Song court recognized his authority at Dunhuang in the same year.
1006 AD.	Cao Zongshou sent tribute to the Liao Kingdom.
1014 AD.	Cao Zongshou died. His son Cao Xianshun stepped in his position. Cao Xianshun sent tribute to the Song court and won the imperial recognition. He also sent envoy to the Liao court in the same year.
1036 AD.	Shazhou (Dunhuang) was conquered by the Western Xia.
1097 AD.	The Khotanese army attacked Dunhuang.
1110 AD.	The king of the Western Xia ordered to send grains to relieve the famine at Dunhuang.
1227 AD.	The Mongols conquered Dunhuang and used it as a military base.
1277 AD.	The county administration was re-established at Dunhuang.
1283 AD.	Chinese people were allowed to take positions in the local government.
1303 AD.	About 10,000 Mongolian soldiers were based at Dunhuang.
1357 AD.	Shi Xiaoyu, a painter from Ganzhou, inscribed on the wall of Cave 444. He created the Chinese style tantric paintings in Cave 3.
1372 AD.	General Fengsheng of the Ming Dynasty conquered Dunhuang. After the construction of the Jiayu Pass, Dunhuang was administrated local chiefs. The Moslems from Turfan attacked Dunhuang frequently.
1524 AD.	The Ming government closed the Jiayu Pass. Dunhuang was left over, and most local residents were moved other counties inside the pass.
1644 AD.	The Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty.
1725 AD.	Emperor Yongzheng re-established the local administration and sent 2405 families to Dunhuang. New buildings and streets were constructed.
1760 AD.	Dunhuang was re-named a county by the Qing government.
1900 AD.	Wang Yuanlu, a Daoist monk residing at the Mogao site, discovered the "library cave." Dunhuang has become gradually a well-known site of Chinese culture and art since then.